Buckley Quote & Some Lecture Notes

Below is the quote from Walter Buckley, which I argued captures very well the conservative bias in Parsons' structural functionalism, as Inkeles and others also bring out:

"From many statements made by functionalists, it seemed possible to conclude that since a social system persisting a long time is functionally integrated, or has reached a state of 'equilibrium' it must have attained an ideal state of adjustment, whether in terms of individual happiness or common welfare. Such a situation, therefore, is evaluated as 'good' and must not be changed: what is, is best, and any change is for the worse."

And Buckley went on to note that, although this has been the interpretation made by some, functionalism can also have radical implications. It all depends on what is defined as a stable, healthy society.

Let me then pick up with some final observations about Robert Merton:

D. Finally, I believe we need to acknowledge a contribution of Merton's that I know I've made use of (although I wonder if it was really original with him) -- the concept of "SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY."

1. The authors note how "self-fulfilling prophecy" is connected with another well-known observation of W.I. Thomas -- "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." See examples of the banks, middle, p. 365. (This clearly has relevance to our recent financial crisis; in fact I heard this term used this morning with respect to the European financial crisis involving Greece.) Also, clearly has relevance in the racial area, where a strong belief in racial inferiority of some group may indeed lead individuals of that group to be inferior.

E. Finally, I would say the bottom-line with Merton is that, in various ways, he was challenging the accusation that functionalism is inherently conservative.


Section VIII Criticism, Marxism, Change

A. Again, a brief and not very informative introduction. The authors begin by summarizing the previous section as being about "...the more-or-less 'official' twentieth-century conservative capitalist theory and ideology of functionalism." (p. 393) (Perhaps, but I know such a view would clearly be rejected by functionalists and systems' theorists.)

B. Despite Marxist hopes for the demise of capitalism in the wake of the Russian Revolution, the Great Depression, etc., it did not happen and indeed the Stalinist regime in the Soviet Union led Marxist intellectuals to question it as a model.

C. Hence, the emergence in the 1920s of what is called "The Frankfurt School," which attempted to account for the failures and shortcomings of Soviet-style socialism, as well as criticizing Western capitalism but not strictly on economic grounds. These thinkers drew on other perspectives, perhaps most notably Freud (eg., Herbert Marcuse's "Eros and Civilization").
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That brings us up to Chapter 16, where I will probably pick up next Tuesday, although if time permits, I may blog some more notes.

FAMILY ACTIVITY: MAKING UP QUESTIONS FOR THE FINAL EXAM

As you did for the midterm exam, I want each family to make up FIVE short-answer questions for the final exam. These questions should come from the latter half of the course, which began with our first class after Spring Break on April 6th. In that class, I was wrapping up Marx and commenting on those 3 handouts I distributed before the break ("The Dot-Communist Manifesto," et. al.). Of course, don't forget to include in your review later handouts and blogged lecture notes, from which you can also make up questions. I will give you some time next week to brainstorm with your family members, but in the meantime you can begin to do this individually. As I did with the midterm, I will try to accept at least three questions from each family, and for each additional question I accept you will earn a bonus point. I will need these questions to be submitted NO LATER THAN NOON WEDNESDAY, MAY 12TH. I will make my selections and then post the questions (and answers) that will be on the final exam on FRIDAY, MAY 14TH, so you can have them to study from for the final exam, which is scheduled for TUESDAY, MAY 18TH FROM 9-12. This activity is worth 6activity points for all participating family members, plus whatever bonus points you may earn.

More Lecture Notes

As promised, I am posting more lecture notes. Again, don't forget to check out the previous couple blog posts, especially the one on our current family activity on Chapter 11.

CHAPTER 13: SOCIETY, SELF, AND MIND: COOLEY, MEAD, AND FREUD

A. The authors open this chapter with a point I would have to agree with:
"When sociology teachers complain that they are having trouble getting their students to think sociologically, they usually mean getting them to think about society as a whole. In the United States we are more attuned to individual-level explanations." (p. 310)

1. And Cooley, Mead, and Freud certainly provide insight into the individual-level (or group-level) social interaction, although I would also insist that they were also aware of that larger social environment which plays a role in the development (and dysfunction) of individuals.


Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

A. He grew up, was educated, and taught at the University of Michigan. In 1918 he became President of the American Sociological Society. His work helped lay the foundation for social psychology and symbolic interactionism, more specifically.

1. He was influenced by Spencer but did not agree with his use of the more wholistic, organismic analogy. Cooley argued that Spencer did not appreciate the significance of individual interaction.

B. "Sociological concepts, for Cooley, must be anchored in the real social world of interacting individuals." (p. 312) At one point, the authors describe Cooley's understanding of social life as "MENTALISTIC."

C. Three key concepts/contributions for Cooley

1. "LOOKING-GLASS SELF" -- That is, our sense of who we are is developed in reference to others. You understand yourself, who you are, in terms of your understanding of what others think or imagine you to be.

2. How people choose to define you, look upon you -- as a criminal, nerd, star, etc. -- will likely determine your identity. Creates what is called a "SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY," a concept which I believe is especially relevant in terms of racial identity and stereotyping.

3. And these individual interactions usually take place in PRIMARY GROUPS (see definition and significance of primary group, bottom, p. 313). There is an important and obvious implication to be drawn from this type of group:
"Because primary groups are the major, universal groups, they form the basis of 'what is universal in human nature and human ideals.'"

"If primary groups are critical to human social and moral development, and to solidarity with others, then any threat to an individual's contact with significant primary groups will result in problems for the individual and society. Thus, it is very important that the child not be deprived of consistent, long-term contacts in early years." (p. 314)


George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

A. Although there are several references to it, there is no direct mention of his major work which is his main claim to fame in sociology -- "Mind, Self, and Society" -- published 3 years after his death in 1934, and it was really put together from notes taken by his graduate students.

B. Mead himself was a philosopher, two of his most important influences were pragmatist philosopher William James (also an influence on Cooley) and German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt from which Mead came to appreciate the role of gestures, symbols, signs in human communication and interaction.

C. The authors do a good job of presenting a very basic aspect of Mead's thought, crucial to the later development of symbolic interactionism, and that is his view of personality development being socially based, involving three distinct stages which all hinge on the concept of role-taking.

1. Those three stages being: PLAY, GAME, and "GENERALIZED OTHER," generalized other being the most significant. It represents the culmination of this process of self-development through role-taking. This represents the "synthesized view" of others' attitudes and expectations built up over a long period. Primary-group interactions especially. I've always thought of the "generalized other" as similar to the CONSCIENCE or Freud's "SUPER-EGO."

D. The authors go on to note that because of Mead's emphasis on mind and self, we tend to overlook his views on the nature of society. But mind and self only develop in the context of society, society itself being basically an outgrowth of individuals interacting. It was Mead's student, Herbert Blumer, in a seminal essay, "Society as Symbolic Interaction" (1937), who develops some of the societal implications of this theory of personality development.


Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

A. Without getting into the nitty-gritty of psychoanalysis and the explanation it offers for various psychological disorders, I believe it is important to have a general overview of the Freudian view of the personality structure, and the sociological implications of that view for the relation between the individual and society (or civilization). The sociological dimension comes through clearly in his "Civilization and Its Discontents" (1930).

B. The authors give a good, succinct overview of the three elements of the personality structure -- ID, SUPER-EGO, and EGO. See bottom p. 330-331.

C. In terms of the impact of civilization, he saw it as COERCIVE, CONTROLLING our basic instinctual drives -- EROS (sexual) and THANATOS (aggressive or death instinct). Civilization is something that, in the end, makes us sick or unhappy. See middle paragraph, p. 332, which summarizes a basic point in "Civilization and Its Discontents."
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That brings us up to some comments I want to make on that handout, "Freud and the Fundamentalist Urge," which you should have read by next Tuesday. Also, since we will be getting into Chapter 14 on Functionalism, you should also read that handout from Alex Inkeles on the organismic analogy. Finally, on Tuesday I will announce another time for Q & A on "The Sociological Imagination."

Reminders & More Lecture Notes

REMINDERS: Be sure to check out the previous two blog posts for the "game plan" for the rest of the semester, lecture notes on Veblen, and the description of the family activity on Chapter 11, where you should post you findings next week. Since I did not get through DuBois this morning, I am going to post the remainder of those lecture notes. And tomorrow I may add my notes on Chapter 13 as well, so I can keep pace with the "game plan."
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Nature of Society, Humans, and Change

A. The authors note that DuBois exposed HISTORY AS IDEOLOGY -- how historians had unanimously argued that Blacks were responsible for the failure of Reconstruction and their subsequent inferior status. Factually, DuBois argues that it was the other way around, as he documents in "Black REconstruction in America" (although the authors give none of the factual detail that DuBois brought out to counter this consensus view).

B. DuBois did not believe that human nature was inherently good or bad, but malleable. Similarly, he did not see racial prejudice as ineradicable. He makes an interesting point about this as regards the newly freed slaves. See top p. 300.

C. He did not see progress on the racial front or otherwise as inevitable. Note what the authors say about DuBois's optimism. See bottom paragraph, p. 300.

Class, Gender, Race

A. DuBois clearly saw class and race as intertwined. He makes an interesting point about how class seems to trump race when you're talking about the black middle class. Nonetheless, he felt (like himself) that the black middle class (what he sometimes called "the talented tenth") had an obligation to try to uplift the poor Black masses.

B. He "argued that no scientific definition of race is possible. Physical differences fade into each other almost imperceptibly." (p. 302) Talks about the "race construct" -- what I would call the social construction or definition of race.

1. In this context, DuBois contended that racial discrimination preceded prejudice and could reinforce it.

C. DuBois recognized the uplift of women as the next great movement (after racial equality, that is). And he spoke forcefully on issues of suffrage and education for women. He clearly was in the minority on this issue compared to other sociological theorists we've studied.

Other Theories and Theorists

A. The authors make an interesting point with respect to DuBois's take on William Graham Sumner's Social Darwinism. See middle paragraph, p. 304.

B. And in commenting on DuBois's drift toward Marxism, they quote from a letter Karl Marx wrote to Abraham Lincoln in 1865. See bottom p. 304. (let me say, that although some of Marx's predictions may have been way off, this one certainly was not.)

Critique and Conclusions & Final Thoughts

A. They acknowledge his potential to have been a great national leader, if he had been white (as Gunnar Myrdal observed). His politics, especially his sympathy for communism, also marginalized him.

B. And he clearly was a committed scholar. He clearly belongs squarely in the tradition of CRITICAL THEORY.
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That's all for now. I probably will be adding some more notes on Chapter 13 tomorrow.

Reminders & Lecture Notes

REMINDERS: Remember, that I will be giving the families a bit more time tomorrow (Thurs. 4/22) to come up with what you consider three significant contributions to sociological theory from Chapter 11. Next Tuesday (4/27) I want a representative from each family to present your findings in class. And, then, by next Wed. (4/28) I want those findings posted as a comment on the blog post where I described this family activity. Below is the "game plan" for what I hope to cover by the end of the semester:

Chapter 12: W.E.B. DuBois
Chapter 13: Mead & Freud
_________________________________ April 20-22

Section VII
Chapter 14: 20th Century Functionalism
Chapter 16: Critical Theory
_________________________________ April 27-29

Chapter 19: Mid-20th Century Sociology
Chapter 24: Final Thoughts
"Order and Disorder in Society" E.A. Ahrens (4 copies on reserve in the library)
"SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION PAPER DUE, THURSDAY MAY6TH
__________________________________ May 4-6

"Order and Disorder in Society"
Essay III
__________________________________ May 11-13

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LECTURE NOTES:

A couple final points about Robert Michels:

1. Not only was Michels skeptical about the goal of a Marxist revolution -- a classless, stateless society -- but he was also sensitive to the difficulty of enlisting the support of the masses in overthrowing capitalism as long as there appeared some hope or opportunity for the proletariat to rise to the top (i.e., some "upward mobility").

2. In fact, Michels recognized that rather than demeaning, alienating work giving rise to radicalism, it is more likely to breed APATHY among the workers.

CHAPTER 10: ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES: VEBLEN AND SCHUMPETER

A. Although both of these thinkers had interesting insights into the nature of capitalist society, we are going to focus on Veblen as the better-known and more influential figure (an influence on C. Wright Mills, for example) and gloss over Schumpeter (in part, because I am not that familiar with his work, and I believe it could be characterized as more strictly economic rather than sociological.)

B. The chapter opens, appropriately, I believe, with a song from "Fiddler on the Roof" -- "If I Were a Rich Man" -- a song which illustrates Veblen's notion of "conspicuous consumption" in his most famous work, "The Theory of the Leisure Class."

C. Biographically speaking, Veblen was born and raised on the farm in the Midwest (Wisc. & Minn.), but he clearly "broke the mold" becoming quite an intellectual, one with a critical, even sarcastic, bent.

(1. As we've seen before, the authors indulge in a little pop psychology, suggesting that his marginality and struggles obtaining and keeping an academic appointment fed his criticism of America and higher education. Perhaps, but it strikes me as pure speculation, and suggesting such a connection tends to diminish the strength of his arguments.)

D. It is noted that Veblen was something of an evolutionist, in that he believed in technological change, but he was critical of capitalism and he did NOT believe in the inevitability of human progress, whether through evolution or Marxist revolution.

1. Indeed, as the authors observe, "Had Veblen been more optimistic about the ability to change society, he might have been a Marxist." (p. 246)

E. Despite their strong criticisms of capitalism, Veblen disagreed with Marx on some important points.

1. Veblen questioned the whole idea of economic laws, such as Marx proposed regarding the inevitability of a workers' revolution.

a.) Veblen saw oppressed, exploited workers NOT rationally considering what might be in their best interests -- overthrowing the system -- but he saw their situation giving rise to apathy, avoiding change. This is nicely summed up -- see middle paragraph, p. 247.

2. The authors suggest Veblen's view of capitalism was even more cynical than Marx's. Veblen noted how SABOTAGE, DESTRUCTION are important to capitalist business enterprise, in two senses:

a.) BUILT-IN OBSOLESCENCE -- throwaway society, so we can produce more and companies can make more profit.

b.) WAR is good for capitalism -- maximizes productivity for war effort, but also because war is destructive of goods and is followed by reconstruction. The authors use the 1991 Persian Gulf War as an example of this "destruction/reconstruction" cycle.

F. In terms of class, Veblen focused more on the ways of the wealthy, the captains of industry or "robber barons", rather than the distress of the working class. In this context, he wrote his best-known work, "The Theory of the Leisure Class" (1899)

1. Although Veblen observed that humans have an "instinct to workmanship" -- a need to create, do something, once they begin producing a surplus the "universal desire for status" takes over among those who control that surplus and it comes to be used more to impress people.

2. Accumulation becomes an end in itself, for the sake of repute and esteem.

3. In modern industrial society, a "leisure class" emerges which is intent upon demonstrating conspicuously its status -- through CONSPICUOUS LEISURE and, generally, CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION. See p. 250, two paragraphs before Gender.

G. Among the other aspects of Veblen's work that are covered, I believe the authors' treatment of Veblen's book, "The Higher Learning in America," is most significant -- although I would not endorse the suggestion that one of his motives in writing the book was his own alienation from the academic community.

1. In his day, I believe Veblen recognized the influence of business in higher education and how that influence was PERVERTING education -- turning it away from its fundamental purpose of the pursuit of learning and knowledge for its own sake and all that that entails.

a.) He observed how governing boards and administrations came to focus increasingly on PRESTIGE, PUBLICITY, PLANT, and PERPETUATION, competing for students like any business. He even took a whack at money in athletic programs. (Think of what he might say if he were alive today!!)

2. In the end, he felt that the modern university was coming to resemble any large capitalist bureaucratic organization -- see top paragraph, p. 253.

H. Though he saw capitalism/business as the villian, Veblen clearly was not ready to embrace the Marxist alternative. In the end, he had no alternative, but that is not to say he was not insightful about the capitalist system, and indeed what it would likely become. see p. 254, middle two paragraphs just before Joseph Schumpeter.
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That brings us up to Chapter 12, where I will pick up tomorrow (Thurs., 4/22).

FAMILY ACTIVITY

Before I describe this family activity, let me call your attention to the previous blog post in which I posted my remaining lecture notes on Weber. Make sure to check that out and incorporate those notes into your class notes.

FAMILY ACTIVITY: One of the chapters in the text that I had planned to skip over was Chapter 11, Society and Gender: Gilman and Webb, in part because of my very limited knowledge of their contributions to sociological theory. So, for this family exercise, I, first of all, want everyone to read Chapter 11 carefully. Then, I want each of the families to identify and describe any THREE contributions to sociological theory that are brought out in the authors' discussion of Gilman and Webb, and note how each of these contributions compare and/or contrast with any ONE of the other theorists we've covered in class. I will give you some class time next week to confer with your family members.

We'll take some time out in class on Thursday, April 22nd to hear a representative from each family present what you found. I would also like someone from each family to post a summary of your findings as a comment on this blog post. The deadline for posting these summaries will be Monday, April 26th. I may draw on this material to make up a couple final exam questions.

This activity is worth 7 points for each participating family member.

Remaining Lecture Notes on Weber & Reminders

Since we did not finish Chapter 7 on Weber today (4/13), I am going to post the rest of what I planned to say about Weber on this blog. Of course, be sure to incorporate these notes in your class notes.

We left off talking about one of Weber's central methodological contributions, the concept of VERSTEHEN. This is well-described in a passage in the middle of p. 175.
(personally, I do not see the distinction between "direct observational" and "explanatory" understanding as being that significant.)

(In general, Weber's advocacy of the verstehen approach clearly provides support for QUALITATIVE research approaches such as PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION or FIELD WORK over and above quantitative, statistical, scientific approaches.)

3. In a previous text I used, Weber's position in this regard was referred to as "methodological individualism." Indeed, in this respect, Weber did not have much use for Durkheim's "social realism" -- society or social facts existing over and above individuals, as the basic reality. Rather, Weber focused on SOCIAL ACTION -- action to which subjective meaning is attached, subjective meaning which takes into account the behavior of others. (p. 177)

a.) The "Critique and Conclusions" section has a nice statement of the above point:
"Weber's work was, in many ways, a critique and correction of Marx's work, as we have noted in this chapter. It was also largely a repudiation of Durkheim's reification of collective concepts, such as the sui generis understanding of society, as well as his methodological position. For Weber, sociology was the interpretive exercise that took the individual and individual action as the basic unit of analysis. When examining concepts such as the state, association, or feudalism, the 'task of sociology is to reduce these concepts to understandable action, that is, without exception, to the action of participating individual men.'" (pp. 193-194)

4. Weber also introduced, and argued for, the use of the IDEAL TYPE. Ideal types are abstractions that emphasize the core or central elements of any phenomenon (such as bureaucracy). It is a tool for understanding any aspect of society.

H. In connection with ideal types, the authors briefly introduce an important aspect of Weber's work, which is his defense of the DOCTRINE OF VALUE NEUTRALITY.

1. It should be noted in this regard that ideal types are NOT ethical prescriptions which stipulate what we should do or what position we should take.

2. A nice statement of this doctrine (although it is not labeled as such) appears near the bottom of p. 176. "The key to objectivity is conducting research according to rational, objective methods. The research must be clearly conceptualized, the conventional rules of evidence must be followed, conclusions must be drawn only on the basis of the evidence, and no moral or political status should be attributed to the conclusions reached by the scientist as scientist."

"Weber was particularly opposed to sociologists' using their work to advance their own personal beliefs and values: the 'prophet and the demagogue do not belong on the academic platform.'" (p. 176)

a.) This has essentially been the position on this issue that has been embraced by mainstream sociology. However, there was some challenge to this in the 1960s and 70s, and what emerged was a compromise position (endorsed by critics such as C. Wright Mills) -- what I would call the "LET'S BE HONEST" position. (I believe this is where the authors of this text stand, as reflected in their early discussion of the difference between ideology and sociological theory.)

I. On issues of gender and race, it appears Weber was more enlightened than many of his fellow sociological theorists.

1. Regarding gender, and probably because of the influence of his wife who was a feminist, he did embrace a more egalitarian view of the marriage relationship. He viewed women "primarily as human beings and only secondarily as members of the opposite sex." (p. 189) Nonetheless, he did not get away entirely from a "naturalistic" view of women, and in his personal life he strayed from his monogamous relationship.

2. On race, I applaud his clear recognition of race as a SOCIAL, not a biological distinction (a view which was not widely accepted at the time). And he made a very telling point about race relations in the U.S. and why prejudice was deeper among poor whites. See p. 188.
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That brings us to Chapter 8 and Simmel, which is where I will pick up on Thursday (4/15).

REMINDERS:

1. ESSAY II IS DUE THURSDAY (4/15)

2. READ CHAPTERS 8, 9 & 10 (ONLY VEBLEN IN 10).

3. I WILL BE POSTING A BLOG DESCRIPTION OF OUR NEXT FAMILY EXERCISE SOMETIME THIS WEEK. IT WILL INVOLVE MATERIAL BEYOND CHAPTER 10 IN THE TEXT.

4. THE FIRST "SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION" QUESTION & ANSWER SESSION WILL BE NEXT MONDAY (4/19) BETWEEN 1-3PM IN A LOCATION TO BE ANNOUNCED. (THE PORTICO OUTSIDE MAIN BLDG. IF NICE WEATHER PREVAILS)

Midterm Question Re-Writes & Some Lecture Notes

Sorry about the confusion in class yesterday regarding question #4 on the midterm (which everyone missed). The description of the re-write I put on the board was based on question #9, not #4. So, let me make amends in this blog. Below are the two questions that you may re-write to earn a total of 7 points. This is voluntary and is open to everyone:

#4 STATE ALL FOUR THEMES AND ALSO INCLUDE WHAT TWO DIFFERENT THEORISTS SAID ABOUT ANY TWO OF THESE THEMES. THIS, OF COURSE, IS MORE THAN THE ORIGINAL QUESTION ASKED.
(5PTS)

#31 RE-WRITE THE ANSWER TO THIS ONE. I WOULD SUGGEST YOU TAKE ANOTHER LOOK AT THE HANDOUT THAT IS REFERENCED IN THIS QUESTION. THIS IS AN IMPORTANT DISTINCTION. FOR THOSE WHO GOT THIS QUESTION, YOU MAY ALSO RE-WRITE THIS ONE BUT YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO IMPROVE ON YOUR ORIGINAL ANSWER. (2PTS)

***YOU MAY EMAIL ME YOUR ANSWERS OR TURN THEM IN ON A SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER. THE DEADLINE IS NEXT MONDAY, APRIL 12TH, BY NOON. I WILL NOT ACCEPT ANY RE-WRITES AFTER THAT TIME.

Also, tomorrow in class I'll finish going over the midterm exam. We left off on question #27.
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Lecture Notes: Since I did not get to Chapter 6 yesterday, I am going to post my notes on that chapter below. Be sure to incorporate these in your class notes.

Chapter 6: Marxism Extended: Lenin and Luxemburg

In this chapter we encounter two important thinkers and activists who not only were involved in carrying out Marx's ideas, but also added to Marx's analysis and critique of capitalism.

A. Lenin, of course, led the successful Russian Revolution in 1917 and was the first leader of socialist Russia.

1. One thing that stands out about his leadership in the first several years was his PRAGMATISM. Lenin was not a rigid ideologue who tried to institute socialism regardless of the circumstances. See bottom two paragraphs p. 148.

B. Lenin also extended Marx's analysis of capitalism to include IMPERIALISM, which extended capitalism's control to underdeveloped parts of the world in Asia, Africa, and Latin America: "Such colonialism (or imperialism), accompanied by uneven economic development, is the essence of modern monopoly capitalism, the international version of the class struggle within nation states." (p. 150) -- that is, the ultimate clash would be between capitalist nations and poor nations. (This aspect of Lenin's thought impressed Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese leader who was seeking support to oust the French who were the colonial oppressors of the Vietnamese at the time.)

1. Today, of course, colonialism has largely been replaced by multinational corporations operating independently, with little national allegiance.

2. Also interesting is how Lenin saw the connection between Western capitalism, colonialism, and racial oppression such as was evident in the U.S.. He influenced the American Communist Party in the 1920s to take a strong stand against racism and segregation in this country.

C. Lenin defended the need for a VANGUARD and a DICTATORSHIP OF THE PROLETARIAT to lead the new, fledgling socialist state in the direction of a truly classless, communist state.

D. Unfortunately, toward the end of his life, Lenin saw this proletarian dictatorship becoming increasingly bureaucratized; the Communist party was "displaying 'a passion for bossing.'" Of course, with Stalin's rise to power, the bossing becomes institutionalized.

E. Rosa Luxemburg was a formidable Marxist intellectual and activist who concentrated her efforts on Germany. Among her more perceptive contributions were:

1. Her criticism of REFORMISM -- that is, tinkering with capitalism, allowing some "bourgeois-granted goals" -- that this would only forestall the revolution, which was the working class's only real salvation.
(Could say, today, that the working class has largely been "bought off" by such concessions, and the capitalists are still essentially in control.)

2. Luxemburg also recognized imperialism (is "globalization" today masquerading as imperialism?) as a new phase of capitalist control. As such, imperialism was the mortal enemy of the proletariat of all countries.

3. She saw MILITARISM as a necessary development in capitalist society to relieve some of the economic pressures created by overproduction. (not all that different from President Eisenhower's warning about the growing power of the "military-industrial complex.") See mid., p. 159. "Thus, Luxemburg explained imperialism, militarism, and war as a single phenomenon of capital expansion and profit-making." (p. 159)

4. Finally, Luxemburg perceptively criticized Lenin's "dictatorship of the proletariat" as being nothing more than a plain old dictatorship, and not a true workers' revolution. (one of the themes of Warren Beatty's film "Reds" which came out in 1980)

F. Rosa Luxemburg (and perhaps to a lesser extent, Lenin) signals the later development of a variety of different Marxisms in the 20th century, some of which were highly critical of the Soviet Union and China, among other so-called Marxist states. (for example, the Frankfurt School covered in Chapter 16)


That brings us to Section IV: Sociological Theories of Complexity and Form and Chapter 7, which is were we will pick up tomorrow (4/8).